The Dual Aspect Model of Moral Behavior: An Experimental Test of Piaget’s Theory of Affective-Cognitive Parallelism
DOI :
https://doi.org/10.36311/1984-1655.2013.v5n0.p4-39Mots-clés :
Moral behavior;, experimental test;, Affective-Cognitive parallelismRésumé
Half a century ago, Jean Piaget suggested a new approach to the study of moral (and non-moral) behavior which we have called Dual Aspect Model, and which, as we shall see, has opened up a new, very prosperous field of research into the nature and development of human morality. When I came across Piaget’s suggestion, in the early 1970s, I was thrilled. I imagined that if this notion, which has received little attention in research on moral behavior and development, were fully understood, it could revolutionize psychology and education.
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Références
Anastasi, A. (1958). Differential Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Anderson, N. H. (1991). Moral-social development. In: N. H. Anderson, Information Integration Theory, Volume III: Developmental, pp. 137 - 187. Hillsdale, NJ:
L. Erlbaum.
Beck, K. (1995). Aspekte der moralischen Urteilsbildung bei kaufmännischen
Lehrlingen – Methodologische Probleme und empirische Befunde [Aspects of
moral judgment development in merchandise apprentices]. In: E. H. Hoff & L.
Lappe, eds., Verantwortung im Arbeitsleben, pp. 114 - 128. Heidelberg: Roland
Asanger Verlag.
Borg, J. S. (2008). Impaired moral reasoning in psychopaths? Response to Kent
Kiehl. In: W. Sinnett-Armstrong, ed., Moral Psychology. Volume 3: The neuroscience of morality: Emotions, brain disorders, and development, pp. 158-163.
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Colby, A. (2008). Fostering the moral and civic development of college students.
In: L. P. Nucci & D. Narvaez, eds., Handbook of moral and character education, pp.
391-413. New York: Routledge.
Colby, A. & Kohlberg, L. (1984). Invariant sequence and internal consistency in
moral judgment stages. In W. M. Kurtines & J. L. Gewirtz, eds., Morality, moral
behavior, and moral development, pp. 41 - 51. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Cooper, H., & Hedges, L. V., eds. (1994). The handbook of research synthesis. New
York: Russell Sage.
DeVries, R. (1997). Piaget's social theory. Educational Researcher, 26(2), 4 - 17.
DeWaal, F. (2009). Primates and philosophers: How morality evolved. Edited by
Stephen Macedo & Josiah Ober. Princton, NJ: Princton University Press.
Emler, N., Renwick, S. & Malone, B. (1983). The relationship between moral reasoning and political orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45,
1073 - 1080.
Eyferth, K. (1959). Integration und Starrheit [Integration and rigidity].
Psychologische Rundschau, 9, 159 - 169.
Galton, F. (1889). Natural inheritence. London: Macmillan.
Gibbs, J. C., & Schnell, S. (1985). Moral development 'versus' socialization: A
critique. American Psychologist, 40, 1071-80.
Graham, J., Haidt, J., & Nosek, B. A. (2009). Liberals and conservatives rely on
different sets of moral foundations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
96, 5, 1029 – 1046.
Volume 5 – Edição Especial – Set/2013 36
www.marilia.unesp.br/scheme
ISSN: 1984-1655
Greene, J. D. (2008). The secret joke of Kant's soul. In: W. Sinnott-Armstrong,
ed., Moral psychology. Valume 3: The neuroscience of morality: Emotions, brain disorders, and development, pp. 39 - 79. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Gulliksen, H. (1950). Theory of mental tests. New York: Wiley.
Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review, 108, 4, 814 - 834.
Hamlin, J. K., Wynn, K., & Bloom, P. (2007). Social evaluation by preverbal infants. Nature, 450, 557-560.
Hartshorne, H. & May, M. A. (1928). Studies in the nature of character. Vol. I: Studies in deceit, Book one and two. New York: Macmillan.
Helkama, K., Uutela, A., Pohjanheimo, E., Saliminen, S., Koponen, A., & Rantanen-Vantsi, L. (2003). Moral reasoning and values in medical school: a longitudinal study in Finland. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 47, 4, 399 -
411.
Higgins, A. (1995). Educating for justice and community: Lawrence Kohlberg's
vision of moral education. In: W. M. Kurtines & J. L. Gewirtz, eds., Moral development: An introduction, pp. 49 - 81. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Hogan, R. & Emler, N. (1995). Personality and moral development. In W. M.
Kurtines & J. L. Gewirtz, eds., Moral development. An introduction, pp. 209 - 227.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Hopkins, K. D. & Glass, G. V. (1978). Basic statistics for the behavioral sciences.
Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Kohlberg, L. (1964). Development of moral character and moral ideology. In: M.
L. Hoffman & L. W. Hoffman, eds., Review of Child Development Research, Vol. I,
pp. 381 - 431. New York: Russel Sage Foundation.
Kohlberg, L. (1976). Moral stages and moralization: The cognitivedevelopmental approach. In T. Lickona, ed., Moral development and behavior: Theory, research and social issues, pp. 31 - 53. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Kohlberg, L. (1984). The meaning and measurement of moral judgment. In: L.
Kohlberg, Essays on moral development, Vol. II, The psychology of moral development,
pp. 395 - 425. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row.
Kohlberg, L. & Kramer, R. (1969). Continuities and discontinuities in childhood
and adult moral development. Human Development, 12, 93 - 120.
Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S. & Masia, B. B. (1964). Taxonomy of educational objectives. Handbook II: Affective domain. New York: McKay.
Kuhn, D., Langer, J., Kohlberg, L. & Haan, N. (1977). The development of formal operations in logical and moral judgments. Genetic Psychological Monographs, 95, 97 - 188.
Volume 5 – Edição Especial – Set/2013 37
www.marilia.unesp.br/scheme
ISSN: 1984-1655
Lind, G. (1978). Wie misst man moralisches Urteil? Probleme und alternative
Möglichkeiten der Messung eines komplexen Konstrukts [How can we measure
moral judgment? Problems and alternative possibilities if measuring a complex
construct.]. In G. Portele, ed., Sozialisation und Moral, pp. 171 - 201. Weinheim:
Beltz.
Lind, G. (1989). Essay review: 'The measurement of moral judgment' by Anne
Colby, Lawrence Kohlberg et al.. Human Development, 32, 388 - 397.
Lind, G. (2000). Moral regression in medical students and their learning environment. Revista Brasileira de Educacao Médica, 24(3), 24 - 33.
Lind, G. (2002). Ist Moral lehrbar? Ergebnisse der modernen moralpsychologischen
Forschung. [Can morality be taught? Research findings from modern moral psychology.] Berlin: Logos-Verlag. [English publication is in preparation.]
Lind, G. (2008 a). The meaning and measurement of moral judgment competence revisited – A dual-aspect model. In: D. Fasko & W. Willis, eds., Contemporary philosophical and psychological perspectives on moral development and education,
pp. 185 - 220. Cresskill. NJ: Hampton Press.
Lind, G. (2008 b). Teaching students to speak up and to listen to others: Cultivating moral democratic competencies. In: D. E. Lund & P. R. Carr, eds., Doing
democracy and social justice in education: Political literacy for all students, pp. 319 -
335. New York: Peter Lang Publishing.
Lind, G. (2009). Moral ist lehrbar. Handbuch zur Theorie und Praxis moralischer und
demokratischer Bildung. [Morality can be taught. Handbook of theory and practice of moral and democratic education]. München: Oldenbourg.
Lind, G. (2010 a). Growth and regression in cognitive-moral development of
young university students. In: C. G. Harding, ed., Moral Dilemmas and Ethical
Reasoning. 2nd edition, pp. 99 - 114. Edison, NJ: Transaction Publisher.
Lind, G. (2010 b). The theory of moral-cognitive development: a sociopsychological assessment. In G. Lind, H. A. Hartmann, & R. Wakenhut, eds.,
Moral Judgment and Social Education, pp. 21 - 53. Edison, NJ: Transaction Books,
2nd edition.
Lind, G. (2010 c). Attitude change or cognitive-moral development? How to
conceive of socialization at the university. In G. Lind, H. A. Hartmann & R.
Wakenhut, eds., Moral Judgment and Social Education, pp. 173 - 192. Edison, NJ:
Transaction, 2nd edition.
Loevinger, J. (1976). Ego development. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
May, M.A. & Hartshorne, H. (1926). First steps toward a scale for measuring
attitudes. The Journal of Educational Psychology, 17, 145 - 162.
Volume 5 – Edição Especial – Set/2013 38
www.marilia.unesp.br/scheme
ISSN: 1984-1655
Meehl, P.E. (1978). Theoretical risks and tabular asterisks: Sir Karl, Sir Ronald,
and the slow progress of soft Psychology. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 806 - 834.
Micceri, T. (1989). The unicorn, the normal curve, and other improbable creatures. Psychological Bulletin, 105(1), 156 – 166.
Miller, G.A. (1969). Psychology, the science of mental life. Harmondsworth: Penguin (Original 1962).
Montada, L. (1993). Moralische Gefühle [Moral feelings]. In W. Edelstein, G.
Nunner-Winkler & G. Noam, eds., Moral und Person, pp. 259-303. Frankfurt:
Suhrkamp.
Nunner-Winkler, G. (1989). Verantwortlichkeit für andere. Das Problem der
‘positiven’ Pflichten [Responsibility for others. The problem of ‘positive’
duties]. In: G. Lind & G. Pollitt-Gerlach, eds., Moral in 'unmoralischer' Zeit, pp.
33 - 54. Heidelberg: Asanger.
Oliveira-Souza, R. de, Ignácio, F. A., & Moll, J. (2008). The antisocials amid us.
In: W. Sinnott-Armstrong, ed., Moral psychology, volume 3: The neuroscience
of morality: emotion, brains disorders, and development, pp. 151 – 171. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Piaget, J. (1951). Play, dreams and imitation in childhood. New York: Norton.
Piaget, J. (1965). The moral judgment of the child. New York: The Free Press.
Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child. Basic Books.
Piaget, J. (1971). The theory of stages in cognitive development. In D. R. Green,
ed., Measurement and Piaget, pp. 1-11. New York: MacGraw-Hill.
Piaget, J. (1976). The affective unconscious and the cognitive unconscious. In: B.
Inhelder & H. H. Chipman, eds., Piaget and his school. New York: Springer, pp.
63 - 71.
Piaget, J. (1981). Intelligence and affectivity: Their relation during child development.
Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews. (Originally published 1954).
Popper, K. R. (1968). The logic of scientific discovery. London: Hutchinson.
Prehn, K., Wartenburger,I., Mériau, K., Scheibe1, C., Goodenough, O.,
Villringer, A., van der Meer, E. & Heekeren, H. (2008). Influence of individual
differences in moral judgment competence on neural correlates of socionormative judgments. Social cognitive and affective neurosience, 3(1), 33-46.
Rest, J. R. (1969). Level of moral development as a determinant of preference
and comprehension of moral judgments made by others. Journal of personality,
37(1), 220 - 228.
Volume 5 – Edição Especial – Set/2013 39
www.marilia.unesp.br/scheme
ISSN: 1984-1655
Rest, J. R. (1984). The major components of morality. In: W. M. Kurtines & J. L.
Gewirtz, eds., Morality, moral behavior, and moral development, pp. 24 - 38. New
York: Wiley.
Rest, J. R. (1988). Moral judgment: an interesting variable for higher education research. ERIC, August, HE 021 280.
Rest, J. R., Narvaez, D., Bebeau, M.J. & Thoma, S.J. (1999). Postconventional moral
thinking. A Neo-Kohlbergian approach. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Schoenfeld, A. H. (1999). Looking toward the 21th century: Challenges of educational theory and practice. Educational Researcher, 28, 4 - 14.
Scott, W.A. (1968). Attitude measurement. In: G. Lindzey & E. Aronson, eds.,
Handbook of social psychology, pp. 205 - 270. Reading MA: Addison-Wesley.
Sprinthall, N. A., Sprinthall, R. C. & Oja, S. N. (1994). Educational psychology. A
developmental approach. 6th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Tomlinson-Keasey, C. & Eisert, D. C. (1981). From a 'Structure d'Ensemble' to
separate organizations for cognitive and affective development. Human Development, 5, 1 - 19.
Wilson, M. (2005). Constructing measures. An item response modeling approach.
Mawah, NJ: Erlbaum Publishing Inc.
Wischka, B. (1982). Moralisches Bewußtsein und Empathie bei Strafgefangenen. University of Marburg: Unpublished diplomna thesis.
Wittgenstein, L. (1953). Philosophical investigations. Translated by G. E. M.
Anscombe. New York: The Macmillan company.
Wuttke, J. (2007). Uncertainties and bias in PISA. S. T. Hopmann, G. Brinek &
M. Retzl, eds., PISA zufolge PISA, pp. 241 - 264. Berlin: LIT-Verlag.
Zajonc, R. (1980). Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences. American Psychologist, 35, 151 - 175.
Anderson, N. H. (1991). Moral-social development. In: N. H. Anderson, Information Integration Theory, Volume III: Developmental, pp. 137 - 187. Hillsdale, NJ:
L. Erlbaum.
Beck, K. (1995). Aspekte der moralischen Urteilsbildung bei kaufmännischen
Lehrlingen – Methodologische Probleme und empirische Befunde [Aspects of
moral judgment development in merchandise apprentices]. In: E. H. Hoff & L.
Lappe, eds., Verantwortung im Arbeitsleben, pp. 114 - 128. Heidelberg: Roland
Asanger Verlag.
Borg, J. S. (2008). Impaired moral reasoning in psychopaths? Response to Kent
Kiehl. In: W. Sinnett-Armstrong, ed., Moral Psychology. Volume 3: The neuroscience of morality: Emotions, brain disorders, and development, pp. 158-163.
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Colby, A. (2008). Fostering the moral and civic development of college students.
In: L. P. Nucci & D. Narvaez, eds., Handbook of moral and character education, pp.
391-413. New York: Routledge.
Colby, A. & Kohlberg, L. (1984). Invariant sequence and internal consistency in
moral judgment stages. In W. M. Kurtines & J. L. Gewirtz, eds., Morality, moral
behavior, and moral development, pp. 41 - 51. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Cooper, H., & Hedges, L. V., eds. (1994). The handbook of research synthesis. New
York: Russell Sage.
DeVries, R. (1997). Piaget's social theory. Educational Researcher, 26(2), 4 - 17.
DeWaal, F. (2009). Primates and philosophers: How morality evolved. Edited by
Stephen Macedo & Josiah Ober. Princton, NJ: Princton University Press.
Emler, N., Renwick, S. & Malone, B. (1983). The relationship between moral reasoning and political orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45,
1073 - 1080.
Eyferth, K. (1959). Integration und Starrheit [Integration and rigidity].
Psychologische Rundschau, 9, 159 - 169.
Galton, F. (1889). Natural inheritence. London: Macmillan.
Gibbs, J. C., & Schnell, S. (1985). Moral development 'versus' socialization: A
critique. American Psychologist, 40, 1071-80.
Graham, J., Haidt, J., & Nosek, B. A. (2009). Liberals and conservatives rely on
different sets of moral foundations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
96, 5, 1029 – 1046.
Volume 5 – Edição Especial – Set/2013 36
www.marilia.unesp.br/scheme
ISSN: 1984-1655
Greene, J. D. (2008). The secret joke of Kant's soul. In: W. Sinnott-Armstrong,
ed., Moral psychology. Valume 3: The neuroscience of morality: Emotions, brain disorders, and development, pp. 39 - 79. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Gulliksen, H. (1950). Theory of mental tests. New York: Wiley.
Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review, 108, 4, 814 - 834.
Hamlin, J. K., Wynn, K., & Bloom, P. (2007). Social evaluation by preverbal infants. Nature, 450, 557-560.
Hartshorne, H. & May, M. A. (1928). Studies in the nature of character. Vol. I: Studies in deceit, Book one and two. New York: Macmillan.
Helkama, K., Uutela, A., Pohjanheimo, E., Saliminen, S., Koponen, A., & Rantanen-Vantsi, L. (2003). Moral reasoning and values in medical school: a longitudinal study in Finland. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 47, 4, 399 -
411.
Higgins, A. (1995). Educating for justice and community: Lawrence Kohlberg's
vision of moral education. In: W. M. Kurtines & J. L. Gewirtz, eds., Moral development: An introduction, pp. 49 - 81. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Hogan, R. & Emler, N. (1995). Personality and moral development. In W. M.
Kurtines & J. L. Gewirtz, eds., Moral development. An introduction, pp. 209 - 227.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Hopkins, K. D. & Glass, G. V. (1978). Basic statistics for the behavioral sciences.
Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Kohlberg, L. (1964). Development of moral character and moral ideology. In: M.
L. Hoffman & L. W. Hoffman, eds., Review of Child Development Research, Vol. I,
pp. 381 - 431. New York: Russel Sage Foundation.
Kohlberg, L. (1976). Moral stages and moralization: The cognitivedevelopmental approach. In T. Lickona, ed., Moral development and behavior: Theory, research and social issues, pp. 31 - 53. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Kohlberg, L. (1984). The meaning and measurement of moral judgment. In: L.
Kohlberg, Essays on moral development, Vol. II, The psychology of moral development,
pp. 395 - 425. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row.
Kohlberg, L. & Kramer, R. (1969). Continuities and discontinuities in childhood
and adult moral development. Human Development, 12, 93 - 120.
Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S. & Masia, B. B. (1964). Taxonomy of educational objectives. Handbook II: Affective domain. New York: McKay.
Kuhn, D., Langer, J., Kohlberg, L. & Haan, N. (1977). The development of formal operations in logical and moral judgments. Genetic Psychological Monographs, 95, 97 - 188.
Volume 5 – Edição Especial – Set/2013 37
www.marilia.unesp.br/scheme
ISSN: 1984-1655
Lind, G. (1978). Wie misst man moralisches Urteil? Probleme und alternative
Möglichkeiten der Messung eines komplexen Konstrukts [How can we measure
moral judgment? Problems and alternative possibilities if measuring a complex
construct.]. In G. Portele, ed., Sozialisation und Moral, pp. 171 - 201. Weinheim:
Beltz.
Lind, G. (1989). Essay review: 'The measurement of moral judgment' by Anne
Colby, Lawrence Kohlberg et al.. Human Development, 32, 388 - 397.
Lind, G. (2000). Moral regression in medical students and their learning environment. Revista Brasileira de Educacao Médica, 24(3), 24 - 33.
Lind, G. (2002). Ist Moral lehrbar? Ergebnisse der modernen moralpsychologischen
Forschung. [Can morality be taught? Research findings from modern moral psychology.] Berlin: Logos-Verlag. [English publication is in preparation.]
Lind, G. (2008 a). The meaning and measurement of moral judgment competence revisited – A dual-aspect model. In: D. Fasko & W. Willis, eds., Contemporary philosophical and psychological perspectives on moral development and education,
pp. 185 - 220. Cresskill. NJ: Hampton Press.
Lind, G. (2008 b). Teaching students to speak up and to listen to others: Cultivating moral democratic competencies. In: D. E. Lund & P. R. Carr, eds., Doing
democracy and social justice in education: Political literacy for all students, pp. 319 -
335. New York: Peter Lang Publishing.
Lind, G. (2009). Moral ist lehrbar. Handbuch zur Theorie und Praxis moralischer und
demokratischer Bildung. [Morality can be taught. Handbook of theory and practice of moral and democratic education]. München: Oldenbourg.
Lind, G. (2010 a). Growth and regression in cognitive-moral development of
young university students. In: C. G. Harding, ed., Moral Dilemmas and Ethical
Reasoning. 2nd edition, pp. 99 - 114. Edison, NJ: Transaction Publisher.
Lind, G. (2010 b). The theory of moral-cognitive development: a sociopsychological assessment. In G. Lind, H. A. Hartmann, & R. Wakenhut, eds.,
Moral Judgment and Social Education, pp. 21 - 53. Edison, NJ: Transaction Books,
2nd edition.
Lind, G. (2010 c). Attitude change or cognitive-moral development? How to
conceive of socialization at the university. In G. Lind, H. A. Hartmann & R.
Wakenhut, eds., Moral Judgment and Social Education, pp. 173 - 192. Edison, NJ:
Transaction, 2nd edition.
Loevinger, J. (1976). Ego development. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
May, M.A. & Hartshorne, H. (1926). First steps toward a scale for measuring
attitudes. The Journal of Educational Psychology, 17, 145 - 162.
Volume 5 – Edição Especial – Set/2013 38
www.marilia.unesp.br/scheme
ISSN: 1984-1655
Meehl, P.E. (1978). Theoretical risks and tabular asterisks: Sir Karl, Sir Ronald,
and the slow progress of soft Psychology. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 806 - 834.
Micceri, T. (1989). The unicorn, the normal curve, and other improbable creatures. Psychological Bulletin, 105(1), 156 – 166.
Miller, G.A. (1969). Psychology, the science of mental life. Harmondsworth: Penguin (Original 1962).
Montada, L. (1993). Moralische Gefühle [Moral feelings]. In W. Edelstein, G.
Nunner-Winkler & G. Noam, eds., Moral und Person, pp. 259-303. Frankfurt:
Suhrkamp.
Nunner-Winkler, G. (1989). Verantwortlichkeit für andere. Das Problem der
‘positiven’ Pflichten [Responsibility for others. The problem of ‘positive’
duties]. In: G. Lind & G. Pollitt-Gerlach, eds., Moral in 'unmoralischer' Zeit, pp.
33 - 54. Heidelberg: Asanger.
Oliveira-Souza, R. de, Ignácio, F. A., & Moll, J. (2008). The antisocials amid us.
In: W. Sinnott-Armstrong, ed., Moral psychology, volume 3: The neuroscience
of morality: emotion, brains disorders, and development, pp. 151 – 171. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Piaget, J. (1951). Play, dreams and imitation in childhood. New York: Norton.
Piaget, J. (1965). The moral judgment of the child. New York: The Free Press.
Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child. Basic Books.
Piaget, J. (1971). The theory of stages in cognitive development. In D. R. Green,
ed., Measurement and Piaget, pp. 1-11. New York: MacGraw-Hill.
Piaget, J. (1976). The affective unconscious and the cognitive unconscious. In: B.
Inhelder & H. H. Chipman, eds., Piaget and his school. New York: Springer, pp.
63 - 71.
Piaget, J. (1981). Intelligence and affectivity: Their relation during child development.
Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews. (Originally published 1954).
Popper, K. R. (1968). The logic of scientific discovery. London: Hutchinson.
Prehn, K., Wartenburger,I., Mériau, K., Scheibe1, C., Goodenough, O.,
Villringer, A., van der Meer, E. & Heekeren, H. (2008). Influence of individual
differences in moral judgment competence on neural correlates of socionormative judgments. Social cognitive and affective neurosience, 3(1), 33-46.
Rest, J. R. (1969). Level of moral development as a determinant of preference
and comprehension of moral judgments made by others. Journal of personality,
37(1), 220 - 228.
Volume 5 – Edição Especial – Set/2013 39
www.marilia.unesp.br/scheme
ISSN: 1984-1655
Rest, J. R. (1984). The major components of morality. In: W. M. Kurtines & J. L.
Gewirtz, eds., Morality, moral behavior, and moral development, pp. 24 - 38. New
York: Wiley.
Rest, J. R. (1988). Moral judgment: an interesting variable for higher education research. ERIC, August, HE 021 280.
Rest, J. R., Narvaez, D., Bebeau, M.J. & Thoma, S.J. (1999). Postconventional moral
thinking. A Neo-Kohlbergian approach. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Schoenfeld, A. H. (1999). Looking toward the 21th century: Challenges of educational theory and practice. Educational Researcher, 28, 4 - 14.
Scott, W.A. (1968). Attitude measurement. In: G. Lindzey & E. Aronson, eds.,
Handbook of social psychology, pp. 205 - 270. Reading MA: Addison-Wesley.
Sprinthall, N. A., Sprinthall, R. C. & Oja, S. N. (1994). Educational psychology. A
developmental approach. 6th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Tomlinson-Keasey, C. & Eisert, D. C. (1981). From a 'Structure d'Ensemble' to
separate organizations for cognitive and affective development. Human Development, 5, 1 - 19.
Wilson, M. (2005). Constructing measures. An item response modeling approach.
Mawah, NJ: Erlbaum Publishing Inc.
Wischka, B. (1982). Moralisches Bewußtsein und Empathie bei Strafgefangenen. University of Marburg: Unpublished diplomna thesis.
Wittgenstein, L. (1953). Philosophical investigations. Translated by G. E. M.
Anscombe. New York: The Macmillan company.
Wuttke, J. (2007). Uncertainties and bias in PISA. S. T. Hopmann, G. Brinek &
M. Retzl, eds., PISA zufolge PISA, pp. 241 - 264. Berlin: LIT-Verlag.
Zajonc, R. (1980). Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences. American Psychologist, 35, 151 - 175.
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