WHEN I READ CAROL GILLIGAN’S IN A DIFFERENT VOICE
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.36311/1984-1655.2022.v14.esp.p257-351Keywords:
Carol Gilligan, Moral development, Ethic of Care Interview, Moral maturity, Religious faith and agapeAbstract
This article reviews some of Carol Gilligan’s ideas on the ethics of care and justice, and describes the development and validation of a care-based moral development instrument, the Ethic of Care Interview (ECI). Following Gilligan’s theory, the ECI measures five hierarchical levels of care reasoning that involve a progressively more sophisticated understanding of human interconnection. A series of studies suggests that the ability to care both for others and oneself is a valuable human quality and an important aspect of positive adaptation across the lifespan. The link between care-based moral thought and identity development is strong, especially for women, as Gilligan suggests. Potential decisive determinants of growth in the care ethic and moral maturity are discussed. Gilligan and Erikson agree that crisis reveals and creates character. Conflict, tension and trauma are potential sources of growth and strength. Crisis and life changing events can propel people into a deeper understanding of themselves and the truth of human interdependence. Questions of morality are bound with questions of right and wrong, good and evil, and ultimately of the meaning of life itself. Why be moral? Why care? Why live? Kohlberg and Erikson say that faith and the experience of unconditional love (agape) is required to find an adequate answer to such profound questions. Both contemplated a similar higher spiritual stage of human development – a transcendent perspective beyond the universal to oneness with the whole of life, nature, cosmos or God. A potential parallel higher metaphoric ECI level is considered. It is concluded that care and justice each is a part of agape. Moral maturity involves an integration that reconciles the truths of both. Future studies and implications for moral education are suggested.
Downloads
References
BLASI, A. Bridging moral cognition and moral action: A critical review of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, v. 88, p. 1-45, 1980.
BLASI, A. The development of identity: some implications for moral functioning. In: NOAM, G. G.; WREN, T. E. (Orgs.). The moral self: building a better paradigm. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1993. p. 99-122.
BLASI, A. Moral understanding and the moral personality: the process of moral integration. In: KURTINES, W. M.; GEWIRTZ, J. L. (Orgs.). Moral development: an introduction. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, 1995. p. 229-253.
BLASI, A. Loevinger’s theory of ego development and its relationship to the cognitive-developmental approach. In: WESTENBERG, P. M.; BLASI, A.; COHN, L. D. (Orgs.). Personality development: theoretical, empirical, and clinical investigations of Loevinger’s conception of ego development. London: Erlbaum, 1998. p. 13–25.
CÁCEDA, R.; JAMES G. A.; ELY, T. D.; SNAREY, J.; KILTS, C. D. Mode of effective connectivity within a putative neural network differentiates moral cognitions. PLoS ONE, v. 6, n. 2, p. 1-12, 2011.
COLBY, A.; DAMON, W. Some do care. Contemporary lives of moral commitment. New York, N.Y.: The Free Press, 1992.
COLBY, A., & KOHLBERG, L. The measurement of moral judgment. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
ERIKSON, E. H. Young man Luther: a study in psychoanalysis and history. New York: Norton, 1958.
ERIKSON, E. H. Insight and responsibilities: lectures on the ethical implications of psychoanalytic insight. New York: Norton, 1964.
ERIKSON, E. H. Identity youth and crisis. New York: Norton, 1968.
ERIKSON, E. H. Gandhi’s truth: on the origins of militant nonviolence. New York. Norton, 1969.
ERIKSON, E. H. The life cycle completed. extended version. New York: Norton, 1998.
FERRER-WREDER, L. A.; KROGER, J. Identity in adolescence: the balance between self and other. 4. ed. London. UK: Routledge, 2019.
GIBBS, J. C. Moral development & reality: beyond the theories of Kohlberg and Hoffman. 2. ed. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, 2010.
GIBBS, J. E.; WIDAMAN, K. F. Social intelligence: measuring the development of sociomoral reflection. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1982.
GILLIGAN, C. In a different voice: psychological theory and women’s development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982.
GILLIGAN, C. In a different voice: psychological theory and women’s development. 2. ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.
GILLIGAN, C.; BROWN, L. M.; ROGERS, A. Psyche embedded: a place for body, relationships, and culture in personality theory. In: RABIN, A. I.; ZUCKER, R. A.;
EMMONS, R. A.; FRANK, S. (Orgs.). Studying persons and lives. New York: Springer, 1990.
GILLIGAN, C.; WIGGINS, G. The origins of morality in early childhood relationships. In: KAGAN, J.; LAMB, S. (Orgs.). The emergence of morality in young children. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1987.
HOARE, C. H. Erikson on development in adulthood: new insights from the unpublished papers. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
JAFFEE, S.; HYDE, J. S. Gender differences in moral orientation: a meta analysis. Psychological Bulletin, v. 126, n. 5, p. 703-726, 2000.
JAMES, W. Varieties of religious experience. Centenary edition. a study in human nature. London, England: Routledge, 2002. (Original work published 1902).
JORGENSEN, G. Kohlberg and Gilligan: duet or duel? Journal of Moral Education, v. 35, n. 2, p. 179-196, 2006.
JOSSELSON, R. Finding herself: pathways to identity development in women. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1987.
JUUJÄRVI, S. The ethic of care development. A longitudinal study of moral reasoning among practical-nursing, social-work and law-enforcement students. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, v. 47, p. 193-202, 2006.
JUUJÄRVI, S.; HELKAMA, K. Duties and responsibilities in adulthood: Integrating care and justice perspectives. In: KALLIO, E. K. (Org.). Development of adult thinking: interdisciplinary perspectives on cognitive development and adult learning. London. UK: Routledge, 2020. p. 63-77.
JUUJÄRVI, S.; MYYRY, L.; PESSO, K. Does care reasoning make a difference? Relations between care, justice and empathy. Journal of Moral Education, v. 39, p. 469-490, 2010.
JUUJÄRVI, S.; MYYRY, L.; PESSO, K. Empathy and values as predictors for care development. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, v. 53, p. 413-420, 2012.
KASHIMA, Y.; YAMAGUSCHI, S.; KIM, U.; CHOI, S.; GELFAND, M. J.; YUKI, M. Culture, gender, and self: a perspective from individualism-collectivism research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, v. 69, n. 5, p. 925-937, 1995.
KING, M. L. Jr. Pilgrimage to non-violence: from stride toward freedom. New York: Harper & Row, 1958.
KING, M. L. Jr. Pilgrimage to nonviolence. University of California Press at Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1960.
KOHLBERG, L. Education, moral development and faith. Journal of Moral Education, v. 4, n. 1, p. 5-16, 1974.
KOHLBERG, L. The psychology of moral development. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1984.
KOHLBERG, L.; GILLIGAN, C. The adolescent as a philospher: the discovery of the self in a postconventional world. In: KAGAN, J.; COLES, R. (Orgs.). 12 to 16: early adolescence. New York: Norton, 1972. p. 144-180.
KOHLBERG, L.; RYNCARZ, R. A. Beyond justice reasoning: moral development and consideration of a seventh stage. In: ALEXANDER, C. N.; LANGER, E. J. (Orgs.). Higher stages of human development. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990. p. 191-207.
LEWIS, C. S. Mere Christianity. London, England: Harper Collins Publishers, 2002. (Original work published 1952).
LOEVINGER, J. Construct validity of the sentence completion test of ego development. Applied Psychological Measurement, v. 3, p. 281-311, 1979.
MARCIA, J. E. Development and validation of ego identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 551–558, 1966.
MARCIA, J. E. Identity in adolescence. In: ADELSON, J. (Org.). Handbook of adolescent psychology. New York: Wiley & Sons, 1980. p. 159-187.
MARCIA, J. E. Why Erikson?. In: HOOVER, K. R. (Org.). The future of identity: centennial reflections on the legacy of Erik Erikson. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2004. p. 43-59.
MARCIA, J. E.; WATERMAN, A. S.; MATTESON, D. R.; ARCHER, S. L.; ORLOFSKY, J. L. Ego Identity: a handbook for psychosocial research. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1993.
MARCIA, J. E.; WATERMAN, A. S.; MATTESON, D. R.; ARCHER, S. L.; ORLOFSKY, J. L. Ego Identity: a handbook for psychosocial research. 2. ed. New York: Springer-Verlag, 2011.
MAXWELL, N. The world crisis and what to do about it: a revolution for thought and action. London: University College London, 2021.
MEYERS, C. S. Care-based reasoning of early adolescents: Its relationship with sex differences, feminine gender role identity, and teacher-perceived cooperation. Paper presented at the Association for Moral Education Conference. Vancouver, B.C. Canada., 2001.
MURDOCH, I. The Bell. London: Chatto & Windus, 1958.
MURDOCH, I. A fairly honourable defeat. London: Chatto & Windus, 1970.
MURDOCH, I. The sovereignty of good. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970.
PIAGET, J. The moral judgment of the child. New York: The Free Press, 1965. (Original work published 1932).
PRATT, M. W.; DIESSNER, R.; HUNSBERGER, B.; PANCER, S. M.; SAVOY, K. Four pathways in the analysis of adult development and aging: comparing analyses of reasoning about personal-life dilemmas. Psychology and Aging, v. 6, p. 666-675, 1991.
PRATT, M. W.; SKOE, E. E.; ARNOLD, M. L. Care reasoning development and Family socialization patterns in later adolescence: A longitudinal analysis. International Journal of Behavioral Development, v. 28, n. 2, p. 139-147, 2004.
PRATT, M. W.; MATSUBA, M. K. The life story, domains of identity, and personality development in emerging adulthood. Integrating narrative and traditional approaches. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018.
REDD, M. C. An examination of the relationship between a woman's level of moral development and her health, self esteem and marital satisfaction. Unpublished masters thesis, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, 1992.
REST, J. R. Development in judging moral issues. Minneapolis. University of Minnesota, 1979.
SKOE, E. E. The development and partial validation of a care-based measure of moral development. Dissertation (Doctor’s degree) – Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia. Dissertation Abstracts International, v. 50, 04-B, p. 1657, 1986.
SKOE, E. E. The ethic of care interview manual. Unpublished manuscript available from the author upon request. University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway, 1993.
SKOE, E. E. Sex role orientation and its relationship to the development of identity and moral thought. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, v. 36, p. 235-245, 1995.
SKOE, E. E. A. The ethic of care: issues in moral development. In: SKOE, E. E. A.; LIPPE, A. L. V. D. (Orgs.) Personality development in adolescence: a cross-national and life span perspective. London: Routledge, 1998. p. 143-171.
SKOE, E. E. A. Why care? Moral development and Religious Experience. In: HEYDEN, U. V. D.; FELDTKELLER, A. (Orgs.). Border crossings: explorations of an interdisciplinary historian. Festschrift for irving hexham. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2008. p. 287-303.
SKOE, E. E. A. The relationship between empathy-related constructs and carebased moral development in young adulthood. Journal of Moral Education, v. 39, n. 2, p. 191-211, 2010.
SKOE, E. E. A. Measuring care-based moral development: the ethic of care interview. Behavioral Development Bulletin, v. 19, n. 3, p. 95-104, 2014a.
SKOE, E. E. A. Religion and morality. In: DANBOLT, L. J.; ENGEDAL, L. G.; STIFOSS-HANSSEN, H.; HESTAD, K.; LIEN, L. (Orgs.). Religionspsykologi (Psychology of Religion). Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk, 2014b. p. 189-202.
SKOE, E. E. A.; CUMBERLAND, A.; EISENBERG, N.; HANSEN, K.; PERRY, J. The influences of sex and gender-role identity on moral cognition and prosocial personality traits. Sex Roles, v. 46, n. 9-10, p. 295-309, 2002.
SKOE, E. E.; DIESSNER, R. Ethic of care, justice, identity and gender: an extension and replication. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, v. 40, p. 102-119, 1994.
SKOE, E. E. A.; EISENBERG, N.; CUMBERLAND, A. The role of reported emotion in real-life and hypothetical moral dilemmas. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, v. 28, p. 962-973, 2002.
SKOE, E. E.; GOODEN, A. Ethic of care and real-life moral dilemma content in early adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 13, v, 2, p. 154-167, 1993.
SKOE, E. E. A; HANSEN, K. L.; MØRCH, W. T.; BAKKE, I.; HOFFMANN, T.; LARSEN, B.; AASHEIM, M. Care-based moral reasoning in Norwegian and Canadian early adolescents: a cross national comparison. Journal of Early Adolescence, v. 19, p. 280-291, 1999.
SKOE, E. E.; LIPPE, A. L. V. D. Ego development and the ethics of care and justice: The relations among them revisited. Journal of Personality, v. 70, p. 485-507, 2002.
SKOE, E. E.; MARCIA, J. E. A care-based measure of morality and its relation to ego Identity. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, v. 37, n. 2, p. 289-304, 1991.
SKOE, E. E.; PRATT, M. W.; MATTHEWS, M.; CURROR, S. E. The Ethic of Care: stability over time, gender differences and correlates in mid to late adulthood. Psychology and Aging, v. 11, p. 280-293, 1996.
SNAREY, J. Cross-cultural universality of social-moral development: a critical review of Kohlbergian research. Psychological Bulletin, v. 97, p. 202–232, 1985.
SOCHTING, I. Ethic of care and its relationship to attachment, object relations and social cognition. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, B. C., Canada, 1996.
SOCHTING, I.; SKOE, E. E.; MARCIA, J. E. Care-oriented moral reasoning and prosocial behavior: a question of gender or sex role orientation. Sex Roles, v. 31, p. 131-147, 1994.
SPINOZA, B. Etikk. (Translated by Ragnar Hertzberg Næss). Oslo, Norway: Pax Forlag, 2002.
TOLSTOY, L. The law of love and the law of violence. Trad. Mary Koutouzow. Honolulu, Hawaii: University Press of the Pacific, 2001. (Original work published 1948).
TRIANDIS, H. C. The psychological measurement of cultural syndromes. American Psychologist, v. 51, n. 4, p. 407 415, 1996.
TRIANDIS, H. C. Individualism-collectivism and personality. Journal of Personality, v. 69, n. 6, p. 907–924, 2001.
TURIEL, E. The development of morality. In: DAMON, W. (Org.). Handbook of child psychology. 5. ed. New York: Wiley, 1998. V. III.
VIKAN, A.; CAMINO, C.; BIAGGIO, A. Note on a cross-cultural test of Gilligan’s Ethic of care. Journal of Moral Education, v. 34, n. 1, p. 107-111, 2005.
WALKER, L. J. Sex differences in the development of moral reasoning: a critical review. Child Development, v. 55, p. 677-691, 1984.
WALKER, L. J. Gender and morality. In: KILLEN, M.; SMETANA, J. (Orgs.). Handbook of moral development. Mahwah, New Jersey: Erlbaum, 2006. p. 93-115.
WARK, G. R.; KREBS, D. L. Sources of variation in moral judgment: Toward a model of real-life morality. Journal of Adult Development, v. 4, p. 163-178, 1997.
WULFF, D. M. Psychology of religion: classic and contemporary. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1997.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Schème: Revista Eletrônica de Psicologia e Epistemologia Genéticas
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.
