Science Diplomacy as a tool of international politics: the power of ‘soft power’
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.36311/2237-7743.2017.v6n3.09.p607Palavras-chave:
Science DiplomacyResumo
Science and Technology (S&T) have historically been used by countries as tools of hard power, especially in military and economic contexts. Contrary to a strategy that uses S&T as a hard power tool, Science Diplomacy (SD) is an alternative form of using S&T in bilateral and multilateral interactions; one in which soft power predominates. Relying on examples of the foreign relations of the United States - one of the most developed countries in terms of S&T and SD - this article shows how SD has unified countries and has been employed as a strategy that assists diplomats in interpreting technical knowledge, supports scientists in negotiating multilateral projects, and, most importantly, promotes alliances between countries. The paper is divided in three main sections: in the first part, we present a brief summary of the intellectual history of the concept of SD, introducing and defining it and we discuss why countries invest in it. In the second part, we analyze to what extent S&T played a central role in re-establishing bilateral relations or in promoting more peaceful negotiations between the U.S. and Cuba, North Korea, Russia, and selected Muslim countries. In the third section, we offer our concluding remarks.
Key-words: Science Diplomacy; International Cooperation; Science and Technology.
Recebido em: maio/2017
Aprovado em: janeiro/2018
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Referências
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SCHWEITZER, Glenn. U.S.-Iran Engagement in Science, Engineering, and Health (2000-2009): Opportunities, Constraints, and Impacts. Washinton: The National Academies Press, 2010.
SEO, Hyunjin. THORSON, Stuart. Academic Science Engagement in North Korea. KEI’s Academic Paper Series, vol. 4, n. 4, 2009.
SKOLNIKOFF, E. The elusive transformation: Science, Technology and the evolution of International Politics. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.
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THORSON, Stuart. Universities and Networks: Scientific Engagement with North Korea. Science & Diplomacy, vol. 1, n. 2, 2012.
TUREKIAN, V. Building a National Science Diplomacy System. Science & Diplomacy, vol. 1, n. 4, 2012.
TUREKIAN, V. Science Diplomacy with Cuba. Science, v.344, n. 6188, 2014.
TUREKIAN, Vaughan; NEUREITER, Norman. Science and Diplomacy: the past as prologue. Science & Diplomacy, vol. 1, n. 1, 2012.
WAGNER, C. Science and foreign policy: the elusive partnership. Science And Public Policy, v. 6, n. 29, p.409-417, nov. 2002.
WEISS. Science, Technology and International Relations. Technology in Society, v. 27, 2005.
WEISS. How do Science and Technology affect International Relations? Minerva, v. 53, 2015.
WAGNER; LEYDESDORFF. Network structure, self-organization, and the growth of international collaboration in science. Research Policy, v. 34, 2005.
WHITE HOUSE. transformation and opportunity: the future of the U.S. Research enterprise. President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology. Novembro, 2012. Available at: https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/pcast_future_research_enterprise_20121130.pdf.
AUSUBEL, Jesse; KEYNAN, Alexander. The history of studies of scientists' roles in international conflict resolution. In: AUSUBEL, Jesse; KEYNAN, Alexander; SALOMON, Jean-Jacques (eds.). Scientists, war, and diplomacy: European perspectives. Technology in Society, v. 23, n. 3, 2001.
BERKMAN, Paul Arthur. Stability and Peace in the Arctic Ocean through Science Diplomacy. Science & Diplomacy, vol. 3, n. 2, 2014.
CAMPBELL, Cathleen. US Science Diplomacy with Arab Countries. In: DAVIS, Lloyd; PATMAN, Robert (eds.). Science Diplomacy: new day or false dawn? World Scientific Publishing Company, 2015, chapter 2.
CAMPBELL, Cathleen. Warming U.S.-Russia Relations (Editorial). Science Magazine, vol. 344, issue 6190, 2014.
CAMPBELL, Cathy. A Consortium Model for Science Engagement: Lessons from the U.S.-DPRK Experience. Science & Diplomacy, vol. 1, n. 2, 2012.
COLGLAZIER, William; LYONS, Elizabeth. The United States Looks to the Global Science, Technology, and Innovation Horizon. Science & Diplomacy, Set. 2014.
CULLATHER. Nick. The Hungry World. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010.
DoS - DEPARTMENT OF STATE. Strategic Goal 11: Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs. Department of State and USAID FY 2007 Joint Performance Summary.
DOLAN, B. Science and Technology Agreements as Tools for Science Diplomacy: a U.S. Case Study. Science & Diplomacy, vol. 1, n. 4, 2012.
DOSI, Giovanni. Technological Paradigms and Technological Trajectories. Research Policy, 11 (1982): 147-162.
DUARTE, R. Cooperação Internacional para o Desenvolvimento em Ciência e Tecnologia: a Participação Brasileira na Organização Europeia para Pesquisa Nuclear (CERN). Journal Of Technology Management And Innovation, v. 4, n. 3, p.133-151, nov. 2008.
EUROPEAN COMISSION. Drivers of International collaboration in research. Final Report, 2009. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/research/iscp/index.cfm?pg=allpublications.
FEDEROFF, Nina. Science Diplomacy in the 21st Century. Cell, vol. 136, janeiro 2009.
FREEMAN, Chris; CLARK, John; SOETE, Luc. Unemployment and Technical Innovation. London: Pinter, 1982.
GAILLARD, J. La cóoperationscientifiqueet technique avec les pays du Sud. Paris: ÉditionsKarthala, 1999. 340 p.
GLUCKMAN, P.; GOLDSON, S.; BEEDLE, A. How a small country can use Science Diplomacy: a view from New Zealand. Science & Diplomacy, vol. 1, n. 2, 2012.
HORMATS, R. Science Diplomacy and Twenty-First Century Statecraft. Science & Diplomacy, vol. 1, n. 1, 2012.
KRIGE, John. BARTH, Kai-Henrik. Global Power Knowledge: Science And Technology In International Affairs. Osiris, vol. 6, n. 3, 2006.
KORTE, Andrea. Diplomacy with Cuba Sees New Scientific Partnerships. AAAS, December, 2015. Available at: http://www.aaas.org/news/diplomacy-cuba-sees-new-scientific-partnerships.
LINKOV, I.; TRUMP, B.; TATHAM, E.; SANKAR, B.; ROCO, M. Diplomacy for Science two generations later. Science & Diplomacy, vol. 3, n. 1, 2014.
MALLIK, Amitav. Technology and Security in the 21st century: a demand-side perspective. Estocolmo: Oxford University Press. 2004.
MERTON, R. La sociologia de la Ciencia.Madrid: Alianza Editorial SA, 1977.
NELSON, Richard; WINTER, Sidney. An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982.
NOBLE, David. America by design. New York: Oxford University Press, 1977.
NYE, Joseph. Get Smart: combining Hard and Soft Power. Foreign Affairs, vol. 88, n. 4, 2009.
OBAMA, Barack. 2009. Remarks by the President on a new beginning, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt. Available at: https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/remarks-president-cairo-university-6-04-09.
PATRANA, Sergio Jorge. Building a Lasting Cuba-U.S. Bridge through Science. Science & Diplomacy, Vol. 4, No. 1, March 2015. Available at: http://www.sciencediplomacy.org/perspective/2015/building-lasting-cuba-us-bridge-through-science.
POPOLO. Science and International Relations: Brazil and the Geopolitics of Knowledge. Brazilian Journal of International Relations, v. 5, n. 2, 2016.
PRICE, De S. Little Science, Big Science. Nova York: Columbia University Press, 1963.
ROJANSKY, Matthew. TABAROVSKI, Izabella. The Latent Power of Health Cooperation in U.S.-Russian Relations. Science & Diplomacy, vol. 2, n. 2, 2013.
ROYAL SOCIETY. New Frontiers in Science Diplomacy: navigating the changing balance of Power. Londres: The Royal Society, 2010. 33 p.
SALOMON, J. Science Policy Studies and the Development of Science Policy. IN: ROSING, I.; PRICE, S. Science, Technology and Society: a cross-disciplinary perspective. London: Sage, 1977, p. 43-70.
SALVATORE, Ricardo. Disciplinary Conquest. U.S. Scholars in South America, 1900-1945. Durham N.C.: Duke University Press, 2016.
SCHWEITZER, Glenn. U.S.-Iran Engagement in Science, Engineering, and Health (2000-2009): Opportunities, Constraints, and Impacts. Washinton: The National Academies Press, 2010.
SEO, Hyunjin. THORSON, Stuart. Academic Science Engagement in North Korea. KEI’s Academic Paper Series, vol. 4, n. 4, 2009.
SKOLNIKOFF, E. The elusive transformation: Science, Technology and the evolution of International Politics. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.
SKOLNIKOFF, E. The political role of scientific cooperation. Technology in Society, 23, 2001, p. 461-471.
THORSON, Stuart. Universities and Networks: Scientific Engagement with North Korea. Science & Diplomacy, vol. 1, n. 2, 2012.
TUREKIAN, V. Building a National Science Diplomacy System. Science & Diplomacy, vol. 1, n. 4, 2012.
TUREKIAN, V. Science Diplomacy with Cuba. Science, v.344, n. 6188, 2014.
TUREKIAN, Vaughan; NEUREITER, Norman. Science and Diplomacy: the past as prologue. Science & Diplomacy, vol. 1, n. 1, 2012.
WAGNER, C. Science and foreign policy: the elusive partnership. Science And Public Policy, v. 6, n. 29, p.409-417, nov. 2002.
WEISS. Science, Technology and International Relations. Technology in Society, v. 27, 2005.
WEISS. How do Science and Technology affect International Relations? Minerva, v. 53, 2015.
WAGNER; LEYDESDORFF. Network structure, self-organization, and the growth of international collaboration in science. Research Policy, v. 34, 2005.
WHITE HOUSE. transformation and opportunity: the future of the U.S. Research enterprise. President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology. Novembro, 2012. Available at: https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/pcast_future_research_enterprise_20121130.pdf.
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2018-02-03
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DOMINGUES, A.; RIBEIRO NETO, P. H. Science Diplomacy as a tool of international politics: the power of ‘soft power’. Brazilian Journal of International Relations, Marília, SP, v. 6, n. 3, p. 607–629, 2018. DOI: 10.36311/2237-7743.2017.v6n3.09.p607. Disponível em: https://revistas.marilia.unesp.br/index.php/bjir/article/view/6938. Acesso em: 25 abr. 2024.
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